Islamic Scientific Schools

In the Name of Allah---the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful. The universe is often perceived as a vast collection of independent objects governed by physical laws. However, a closer examination of nature reveals a far more profound reality: every component of creation exists within an intricate network of relationships and mutual dependence. The stars forge the elements that form planets and living organisms; the atmosphere, oceans, and biosphere sustain one another through continuous cycles; and every living species contributes, directly or indirectly, to the balance of its ecosystem. This pervasive interconnectedness suggests that the cosmos is not merely an assembly of separate entities but a unified and coherent system whose stability depends upon the harmonious interaction of its diverse parts. This study advances the concept of the Symbiotic Universe as a Qur'anic theory of universal interdependence. It argues that the Qur'an presents creation as an integrated whole in...

In the Name of Allah---the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful. Shafaq Ahmar: A Modern Understanding Introduction The disappearance of Shafaq Ahmar (the red twilight) marks the beginning of the time for the Isha prayer according to the overwhelming majority of Islamic jurists. For centuries, Muslims have relied upon direct observation of the western horizon to determine the disappearance of this red glow. However, atmospheric conditions, geographical location, seasonal changes, and modern light pollution often make such observations difficult or unreliable. Modern atmospheric science now provides valuable insights into the physical nature of twilight. Rather than replacing the juristic definition, these scientific findings help us understand what Shafaq Ahmar actually is and how it behaves in Earth's atmosphere. One of the most significant recent contributions is the 2024 study published in Scientific Reports ( Nature Portfolio ), which investigated the evolution of twilight bri...

In the Name of Allah---the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful. Introduction The extreme latitudes of the Earth present one of the most challenging questions in contemporary Islamic jurisprudence. In regions near the Arctic and Antarctic Circles, normal astronomical signs that determine prayer and fasting times may partially or completely disappear. During the phenomenon known as the Midnight Sun, the sun remains above the horizon for weeks or months. During the Polar Night, it may not rise at all. Islamic acts of worship are traditionally linked to observable solar phenomena. Fajr begins with true dawn, Dhuhr with the sun's decline from the meridian, Maghrib with sunset, and Isha with the disappearance of twilight. When these signs cease to exist or become indistinguishable, Muslims face an important legal question: how are the obligations of prayer and fasting to be fulfilled? Remarkably, classical Islamic jurists addressed this issue centuries before Muslims permanently settle...