Islamic Scientific Schools

In the Name of Allah---the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful. Introduction The extreme latitudes of the Earth present one of the most challenging questions in contemporary Islamic jurisprudence. In regions near the Arctic and Antarctic Circles, normal astronomical signs that determine prayer and fasting times may partially or completely disappear. During the phenomenon known as the Midnight Sun, the sun remains above the horizon for weeks or months. During the Polar Night, it may not rise at all. Islamic acts of worship are traditionally linked to observable solar phenomena. Fajr begins with true dawn, Dhuhr with the sun's decline from the meridian, Maghrib with sunset, and Isha with the disappearance of twilight. When these signs cease to exist or become indistinguishable, Muslims face an important legal question: how are the obligations of prayer and fasting to be fulfilled? Remarkably, classical Islamic jurists addressed this issue centuries before Muslims permanently settle...

In the Name of Allah---the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful. Fajr and Isha Times: A Digital Dilemma Abstract The determination of Fajr and Isha prayer times has traditionally been one of the most observable aspects of Islamic worship. For over fourteen centuries, Muslims identified these prayer times directly through visible astronomical phenomena occurring during twilight. However, the transition from direct observation to digital computation has introduced significant challenges. Modern prayer time software must transform observable celestial events into mathematical algorithms, yet the astronomical behavior of twilight is far more complex than fixed numerical models can adequately represent. Most contemporary prayer time applications rely upon fixed solar depression angles to calculate Fajr and Isha. While computationally convenient, this approach often diverges from actual twilight observations because the visibility of dawn and dusk varies with latitude, season, atmospheric cond...

In the Name of Allah---the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful. Types of Tawḥīd Introduction Tawḥīd (التوحيد) is the foundation of Islam and the central message of all prophets. The word Tawḥīd is derived from the Arabic root waḥḥada (وَحَّدَ), which means "to make one" or "to affirm oneness." In Islamic terminology, Tawḥīd means affirming the absolute oneness of Allah in His Lordship, worship, names, and attributes. The Qur'an repeatedly emphasizes that the purpose of creation and the mission of all prophets was to establish Tawḥīd and eliminate shirk (associating partners with Allah). Allah says: "And We certainly sent into every nation a messenger, saying: Worship Allah and avoid false deities." (Qur'an 16:36) Similarly, the Prophet Muhammad ﷺ spent thirteen years in Makkah primarily calling people to Tawḥīd before other laws and rulings were revealed. Although the term "types of Tawḥīd" is not explicitly mentioned in the Qur'an or...

In the Name of Allah---the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful. Tawassul, Shafa'ah, and Shirk: Understanding the Fine Line Introduction Islam places Tawhid (the absolute Oneness of Allah) at the very foundation of faith. Associating partners with Allah in His essence, attributes, powers, or worship is considered the gravest sin. For this reason, the Qur'an repeatedly identifies various forms of shirk and warns believers against them. Tawassul (seeking a means of approach to Allah) and Shafa'ah (intercession) are concepts that are recognized in Islam in their legitimate forms. However, throughout history, these valid concepts have sometimes been distorted into beliefs and practices that either approach shirk or, in some cases, become shirk itself. Therefore, Muslim scholars have always emphasized the importance of distinguishing between legitimate Tawassul, legitimate Shafa'ah, and polytheistic practices. The Islamic Concept of Tawassul and Shafa'ah Linguistically, Ta...

بسم اللہ الرحمٰن الرحیم توسل، شفاعت اور شرک: باریک فرق اور اسلامی تصور اسلام نے توحید کو دین کی بنیاد قرار دیا ہے۔ اللہ تعالیٰ کی ذات، صفات، اختیارات اور عبادت میں کسی کو شریک کرنا سب سے بڑا گناہ ہے۔ اسی لیے قرآن مجید نے بار بار شرک کی مختلف صورتوں کی نشاندہی کی اور ان سے بچنے کی تلقین کی۔ توسل اور شفاعت ایسے تصورات ہیں جو اسلام میں اپنی اصل کے اعتبار سے جائز اور ثابت ہیں، لیکن تاریخ میں انہی جائز تصورات کو بنیاد بنا کر ایسے عقائد و اعمال بھی وجود میں آئے جو شرک کے قریب یا بعض صورتوں میں صریح شرک تک پہنچ گئے۔ اسی لیے علماء نے ہمیشہ توسل، شفاعت اور شرک کے درمیان فرق کو واضح کرنے پر زور دیا ہے۔ توسل اور شفاعت کا شرعی تصور توسل کے لغوی معنی کسی مقصد تک پہنچنے کے لیے وسیلہ اختیار کرنے کے ہیں۔ شرعی اصطلاح میں توسل سے مراد اللہ تعالیٰ سے دعا کرتے وقت کسی نیک عمل، اللہ کے اسماء و صفات، یا اللہ کے مقرب بندوں کی نسبت کو وسیلہ بنانا ہے۔ مثلاً ایک مسلمان یوں دعا کرتا ہے: "اے اللہ! اپنے نبی کریم ﷺ کے صدقے اور ان کی محبت کے وسیلے سے میری دعا قبول فرما۔" اس دعا میں پکارا اللہ تعالیٰ ہی کو ...

In the Name of Allah---the Most Beneficent, the Most Merciful. International Relations – CSS Student Notes Introduction What is International Relations (IR)? International Relations is the academic discipline that studies interactions among states and other actors in the international system. These interactions include political, economic, strategic, legal, cultural, and ideological dimensions. IR seeks to explain how global order is created, maintained, challenged, and transformed. In CSS, International Relations is approached both as a descriptive field (what happens in world politics) and an analytical discipline (why and how it happens). Definition and Scope of International Relations Definition International Relations can be defined as: “The study of relations among sovereign states, along with the study of non-state actors whose actions have consequences across national boundaries.” Classical definitions emphasized state-to-state relations , whereas modern definitions include g...