Pakistan: The Mineral Marvel

Abstract

Pakistan, endowed with abundant mineral wealth, is often termed a “mineral marvel.” From vast reserves of coal, copper, and gold in Balochistan to Himalayan treasures of gemstones in Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan’s mineral potential is globally significant but underexplored. This paper discusses the geological diversity, economic importance, and strategic relevance of Pakistan’s mineral resources. It also highlights the challenges and opportunities in harnessing these assets sustainably for national development.

Introduction

Located at the convergence of the Indian, Eurasian, and Arabian tectonic plates, Pakistan boasts a complex geology conducive to rich mineral deposits. Despite decades of political instability and limited exploration, Pakistan holds over 92 known minerals, including precious and industrial-grade elements (Geological Survey of Pakistan [GSP], 2020). This paper aims to explore the mineral resources of Pakistan, evaluate their economic implications, and discuss the strategies necessary for optimal exploitation.

Geological Framework

Pakistan’s geology spans several tectonic zones, including the Precambrian Shield in the east, sedimentary basins in the central plains, and young fold mountains in the north and west. These diverse geological formations harbor a range of metallic and non-metallic minerals. The three major zones—Chagai Arc, Salt Range, and Hindukush-Karakoram—are particularly mineral-rich (Kazmi & Jan, 1997).

Pakistan’s geology spans several distinct tectonic and structural zones, each contributing uniquely to the country’s vast mineral wealth. In the eastern part of the country lies the Precambrian Shield, primarily exposed in the Nagarparkar area of Sindh and parts of the Indian craton extension into Pakistan. This ancient geological formation, dating back over 570 million years, is known for hosting crystalline basement rocks and is a potential source of rare earth elements, uranium, and other valuable minerals.

Moving westward into the central plains, the landscape is dominated by extensive sedimentary basins, such as the Indus Basin, which covers much of Punjab and Sindh. These basins are rich in industrial minerals, hydrocarbons, and evaporites like rock salt and gypsum. Their layered sedimentary sequences make them ideal targets for fossil fuels and other stratabound mineral resources.

In the northern and western regions, young fold-and-thrust belts—formed due to the ongoing collision between the Indian and Eurasian tectonic plates—give rise to the majestic mountain ranges of the Himalayas, Hindukush, and Karakoram. These orogenic zones are geologically dynamic, characterized by igneous intrusions, metamorphic belts, and active faulting. Consequently, they are highly prospective for a variety of mineral deposits, including precious metals (gold and silver), base metals (copper, lead, and zinc), and high-value gemstones.

Among the most mineral-rich geological zones in Pakistan are:

1. The Chagai Arc in western Balochistan is part of the Tethyan Metallogenic Belt, which is globally renowned for its porphyry copper-gold systems. The Reko Diq and Saindak deposits are located here, representing world-class resources formed through volcanic and hydrothermal processes.
2. The Salt Range in northern Punjab, a structural high within the Potwar Plateau, which contains some of the world’s largest reserves of rock salt in the Khewra, Kalabagh, and Warcha mines. It also hosts substantial gypsum, dolomite, and coal deposits.
3. The Hindukush-Karakoram-Himalaya (HKH) region, especially in Gilgit-Baltistan and northern Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, is known for its complex metamorphic and igneous geology, which fosters the formation of precious gemstones such as emeralds, rubies, aquamarine, and topaz. This zone also holds promise for metallic minerals like antimony, bismuth, and tungsten.

The diversity of these geological environments underscores Pakistan’s potential as a significant player in the global mining industry. However, most of these areas remain underexplored due to limited access, inadequate investment, and outdated geological surveys (Kazmi & Jan, 1997).

Interactive Map of Pakistan’s Mineral Deposits

Key Mineral Resources

1. Coal

Pakistan has estimated coal reserves exceeding 185 billion tons, placing it among the top ten countries in terms of coal resource potential globally. These reserves are distributed across several regions, including Punjab, Balochistan, and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, but the most significant and economically viable deposit lies in the Thar Desert in southeastern Sindh province. Discovered in the early 1990s, the Thar coalfield alone is believed to hold more than 175 billion tons of lignite-grade coal, making it one of the largest single coalfields in the world (Pakistan Bureau of Statistics [PBS], 2022).

Lignite, also known as brown coal, has a relatively lower energy content and higher moisture content compared to bituminous or anthracite coal. However, it is still a viable source of fuel for electricity generation, especially when mined close to the site of thermal power plants to minimize transportation costs. Recognizing this potential, the Government of Pakistan, in collaboration with private sector stakeholders and foreign investors—particularly under the umbrella of the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC)—has initiated several integrated mining and power projects in the region. Notable among them is the Thar Block II project, which includes open-pit mining and the construction of coal-fired power plants capable of generating hundreds of megawatts of electricity.

The strategic importance of Thar coal cannot be overstated in the context of Pakistan’s chronic energy crisis. With rising fuel imports putting pressure on the current account and foreign exchange reserves, domestic coal offers an indigenous and affordable energy solution. If harnessed efficiently, it can serve as a long-term anchor for energy security, reducing dependence on imported fossil fuels and stabilizing electricity costs.

However, the exploitation of lignite coal also raises environmental concerns, including greenhouse gas emissions, air and water pollution, and habitat disruption. Therefore, the adoption of clean coal technologies—such as coal gasification, carbon capture and storage (CCS), and fluidized bed combustion—is essential to mitigate adverse environmental impacts. In this regard, Pakistan must invest in research, regulatory frameworks, and public-private partnerships to ensure that the development of its coal sector aligns with global sustainability standards.

In summary, while the Thar coal reserves offer a transformative opportunity for Pakistan’s energy landscape, their effective utilization depends on the integration of modern technology, environmental stewardship, and long-term policy vision.

2. Copper and Gold

The Reko Diq mine, located in the Chagai district of Balochistan, is considered one of the world’s largest undeveloped copper and gold deposits. Situated within the mineral-rich Tethyan Metallogenic Belt, which stretches from Eastern Europe into Southeast Asia, Reko Diq covers an area of over 1,000 square kilometers. It is part of the Chagai Arc, a geologically active region formed by the subduction of the Arabian Plate beneath the Eurasian Plate. This tectonic setting has given rise to numerous porphyry-type deposits, characterized by large-scale, low-grade mineralization rich in copper and gold.

According to feasibility studies conducted by the Tethyan Copper Company (TCC)—a joint venture between Barrick Gold Corporation of Canada and Antofagasta PLC of Chile—the site is estimated to contain 5.9 billion tons of ore, with an average copper grade of 0.41% and gold content of 0.22 grams per ton (TCC, 2012). These figures suggest that Reko Diq holds over 50 billion pounds of copper and 30 million ounces of gold, making it a globally significant deposit in terms of both quantity and quality. If developed, the mine has the potential to produce around 200,000 tons of copper and 250,000 ounces of gold annually over a projected mine life of more than 50 years.

Despite its enormous potential, the Reko Diq project was delayed for years due to legal, political, and investment-related disputes. However, in recent developments, a new agreement was reached in 2022 between the Government of Pakistan, the Balochistan provincial government, and Barrick Gold Corporation, leading to the revival of the project under more favorable terms for Pakistan. The project is now expected to inject billions of dollars into the national economy, create thousands of jobs, and stimulate infrastructure development in one of the country’s least developed regions.

In contrast to Reko Diq’s developmental stage, the Saindak Copper-Gold Project—also located in Chagai—is already operational. Initially explored in the 1970s with assistance from German and Chinese geologists, the project was developed with funding and technical support from the Government of China. Since 2002, it has been run by Metallurgical Corporation of China (MCC) under a lease agreement with the Government of Pakistan. The Saindak mine has a processing capacity of 15,000 tons of ore per day, producing around 15,800 tons of blister copper annually, along with by-products including gold and silver.

While the Saindak project has generated substantial revenues and foreign exchange earnings, it has also drawn criticism over limited local benefits, revenue-sharing disputes, and environmental concerns. The renewed focus on Reko Diq, which now includes stronger provincial participation and environmental accountability mechanisms, is seen as an opportunity to avoid the pitfalls of earlier projects and ensure more equitable and sustainable resource development.

Together, Reko Diq and Saindak represent the untapped mining potential of Balochistan, highlighting the region’s strategic importance in global mineral supply chains and offering Pakistan a pathway toward economic diversification and industrial growth.

3. Gemstones

Northern Pakistan, especially the mountainous regions of Gilgit-Baltistan and parts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (KP), is internationally recognized as a prolific source of precious and semi-precious gemstones. This geologically complex terrain—formed by the collision of the Indian and Eurasian tectonic plates—hosts a variety of metamorphic and igneous rock formations, creating ideal conditions for the crystallization of high-quality gemstones. The region is particularly known for producing rubies from Hunza and Azad Jammu & Kashmir, emeralds from Swat, aquamarine and topaz from Gilgit and Skardu, and peridot from the upper Neelum Valley.

Among these, Swat emeralds are especially prized for their deep green hue and clarity, often rivaling those from Colombia and Zambia in international gem markets. Similarly, rubies from Hunza and Nagar are known for their vibrant red coloration, while the aquamarine from Gilgit-Baltistan, often found in pegmatite veins, is notable for its size, transparency, and bluish-green brilliance. Pink topaz, a rare variety mined in Katlang (Mardan), and peridot from Suppatt are also globally appreciated for their unique colors and gemological properties.

Despite the enormous potential of Pakistan’s gemstone sector, the industry remains largely informal and underdeveloped. A significant portion of the extracted gemstones are illegally mined, smuggled across borders, or sold as raw material at undervalued prices without undergoing local processing or certification. The lack of regulatory oversight, formal mining leases, and transparent market mechanisms has resulted in massive revenue losses for both the government and local communities (Siddique, 2018). Additionally, unsafe mining practices, including the use of rudimentary tools and poorly ventilated shafts, expose miners—many of whom are unskilled and underpaid—to occupational hazards and landslides.

Another critical issue is the lack of value addition within the country. In most cases, raw gemstones are exported to foreign markets—such as Thailand, Sri Lanka, and the UAE—where they are cut, polished, and certified before being sold at many times their original value. This not only reduces potential foreign exchange earnings but also limits the development of a domestic lapidary and gemology industry, which could otherwise provide employment, technical skill development, and support small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs).

Efforts have been made at various levels to formalize the sector, including initiatives by the Pakistan Gems and Jewellery Development Company (PGJDC) and local governments to establish training centers, gem labs, and exhibitions. However, progress remains slow due to bureaucratic inertia, lack of awareness among miners, and insufficient investment in infrastructure and education. Unlocking the full potential of this high-value sector will require comprehensive reforms, including the enforcement of mining laws, better access to technology, formalization of gemstone trade routes, and incentives for local value addition.

In conclusion, the gemstone-rich regions of northern Pakistan hold significant promise for sustainable economic development. With targeted policy interventions, community engagement, and investment in gemstone processing, Pakistan could emerge as a major player in the global gem industry.

4. Salt and Gypsum

Pakistan is home to one of the most significant non-metallic mineral reserves in the world, most notably the Khewra Salt Mine in Punjab. Located in the Salt Range near the foothills of the Himalayas, the Khewra mine is the second-largest salt mine globally and the largest in Pakistan. With an estimated reserve of over 220 million tons of rock salt, it has been in continuous operation since at least the time of Alexander the Great, whose troops are believed to have discovered the pink Himalayan salt deposits during their campaign through the Indian subcontinent. Historically known for its high purity—often exceeding 98% sodium chloride content—the salt extracted from Khewra is used for both domestic consumption and international export, including specialized uses such as gourmet culinary salt, industrial salt, and even decorative salt lamps and tiles.

The Khewra Salt Mine is not only an economic asset but also a tourist attraction, drawing thousands of visitors annually. The mine’s internal infrastructure includes underground chambers, artistic carvings made from salt blocks, a mosque, and a salt bridge, all of which highlight the historical and cultural significance of this unique geological site. Despite its potential, however, the mine has long faced challenges in terms of modernization, mechanization, and transparent revenue management, with much of the salt being sold at low prices under outdated royalty systems and lease agreements.

In addition to rock salt, Pakistan also boasts substantial reserves of gypsum, a soft sulfate mineral composed of calcium sulfate dihydrate (CaSO₄·2H₂O). The country produces more than 3.5 million tons of gypsum annually, with major deposits located in Kohat (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa), Dera Ghazi Khan (Punjab), and Sulaiman Range (Balochistan) (Geological Survey of Pakistan [GSP], 2020). Gypsum plays a crucial role in Pakistan’s construction and agriculture sectors, serving as a key raw material in the cement industry for controlling setting time and improving strength, as well as in the fertilizer industry where it is used as a soil conditioner and a source of sulfur and calcium.

The availability of high-quality gypsum has supported the growth of the domestic cement industry, which is one of the largest in South Asia, and it also holds export potential to neighboring countries, particularly India and Afghanistan. However, the full economic potential of gypsum mining is hindered by a lack of processing units, inconsistent extraction practices, and limited research into value-added products such as gypsum board, plaster of Paris, and prefabricated construction materials.

To maximize the benefits of these non-metallic mineral resources, Pakistan needs to invest in modern mining techniques, encourage public-private partnerships, and ensure sustainable resource management through improved regulatory oversight and community engagement. By promoting downstream industries and value addition, these sectors could significantly contribute to economic diversification, job creation, and rural development in mineral-rich regions.

5. Iron Ore and Chromite

Iron ore is one of the foundational raw materials for industrial development, and Pakistan possesses significant reserves of this strategic resource. The most notable iron ore deposits are located in Kalabagh in Punjab and Nokundi in Balochistan. The Kalabagh iron ore was first discovered in the 1950s and is characterized by hematite and magnetite ores with moderate iron content, typically ranging from 30% to 40%. Located near existing railway infrastructure and industrial centers, Kalabagh holds the potential to support a domestic steel industry if extraction and beneficiation technologies are properly deployed.

Similarly, the Nokundi deposits, situated in the Chagai district of Balochistan near the borders with Iran and Afghanistan, form part of a mineral-rich belt and contain iron ore of better grade. Exploration work carried out by the Geological Survey of Pakistan (GSP) and other entities has confirmed the presence of magnetite reserves in Nokundi, although difficult terrain, limited accessibility, and lack of infrastructure have hampered commercial-scale exploitation. Pakistan’s overall iron ore potential remains underutilized, largely due to inadequate mining technology, insufficient investment, and reliance on imported iron and steel, which strains the country’s trade balance.

In contrast, chromite—an essential mineral used in the production of stainless steel, superalloys, and refractory materials—has seen relatively more active extraction in Pakistan. The country hosts large chromite deposits, particularly in the Muslim Bagh and Khanozai areas of northern Balochistan. These regions lie within the ophiolitic belts of the Muslim Bagh-Zhob area, which is geologically significant for hosting podiform chromite deposits associated with ancient oceanic crust.

Pakistan is among the top chromite-producing countries in the region, and its chromite has a Cr₂O₃ content ranging from 30% to over 50%, making it suitable for metallurgical-grade processing. However, similar to other minerals, a large portion of chromite is exported in raw or semi-processed form, primarily to China, without significant value addition within Pakistan. As a result, the country fails to benefit from the higher profits associated with downstream industries such as ferrochrome production, alloy manufacturing, and specialty steel plants.

Despite the abundance of these metallic minerals, Pakistan has yet to develop a comprehensive mineral industrial base. Major obstacles include outdated mining techniques, lack of beneficiation plants, policy uncertainty, and limited investment incentives. Recent policy shifts and interest from foreign investors—especially in the context of the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC)—have rekindled hopes of reviving the iron and chromite mining sectors through joint ventures, infrastructure development, and mineral processing zones.

For Pakistan to achieve self-reliance in iron and steel production and to capture more value from its chromite reserves, the state must focus on institutional reform, mineral certification, fiscal incentives, and human capital development in the mining sector. Strengthening public-private partnerships and establishing metallurgical research and training institutes can also accelerate the industrial transformation needed to fully exploit these untapped resources.

Economic Potential

Despite its vast geological endowment, Pakistan’s mineral sector currently contributes less than 3% to the national Gross Domestic Product (GDP), a figure significantly below its potential when compared with other mineral-rich developing countries (World Bank, 2021). This underperformance is primarily attributed to structural deficiencies, including outdated mining methods, inadequate geological mapping, lack of value addition, inconsistent regulatory frameworks, and weak institutional capacity. Moreover, the sector suffers from limited private and foreign investment, largely due to an uncertain legal environment, fragmented licensing procedures, and poor infrastructure in mineral-rich regions.

However, with strategic interventions, the mineral sector could become a cornerstone of Pakistan’s economic development. Proper investment in exploration, mechanized mining, mineral beneficiation, and value chain integration could unlock a range of high-value metallic and non-metallic resources—from copper, gold, and iron to gypsum, salt, and gemstones—spurring industrial growth across multiple sectors. Critical steps would include the modernization of mining laws, clearer and more transparent concession policies, the digitization of geological data, and strengthened institutional governance, particularly through agencies such as the Geological Survey of Pakistan (GSP) and provincial mineral development departments.

One of the most compelling arguments for the revival of Pakistan’s mineral economy is its potential to reduce the chronic trade deficit. The country spends billions of dollars annually on the import of industrial minerals, iron and steel products, and petroleum derivatives—many of which could be either substituted or offset through domestic mining and processing. For instance, the development of copper and gold mines such as Reko Diq and Saindak, and the establishment of iron ore beneficiation and steel production facilities, could significantly cut down import dependence and boost mineral exports, especially to regional markets in the Middle East, Central Asia, and China.

In addition to its macroeconomic benefits, the growth of the mineral sector could have transformative effects on employment and regional equity. Mining and its associated supply chains—transport, engineering, equipment manufacturing, and mineral processing—are labor-intensive industries capable of creating thousands of direct and indirect jobs, particularly for youth and skilled workers in underdeveloped areas. For instance, Balochistan, Gilgit-Baltistan, and southern Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, which possess some of the country’s richest mineral deposits, are also among its most economically marginalized regions. Responsible mineral development in these areas could drive inclusive growth, reduce regional disparities, and contribute to socio-political stability.

Furthermore, the adoption of environmentally sustainable practices and technology transfer through international partnerships can position Pakistan as a responsible player in the global mineral economy. The integration of clean mining technologies, compliance with Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs), and community-focused development models can ensure that mineral extraction does not come at the cost of ecological degradation or local displacement.

In summary, the untapped potential of Pakistan’s mineral sector presents both a challenge and an opportunity. If managed strategically—with the right mix of policy reform, infrastructure development, investment incentives, and capacity building—the mineral sector could evolve from a peripheral contributor into a central pillar of economic resilience, industrial diversification, and sustainable development in Pakistan.

Strategic and Geopolitical Significance

In addition to its economic and developmental potential, Pakistan’s mineral wealth holds a significant strategic dimension. Situated at the crossroads of South Asia, Central Asia, and the Middle East, and sharing a border with mineral-intensive industrial powerhouses like China, Pakistan is uniquely positioned to play a pivotal role in the evolving global mineral supply chains. This geographic advantage is being further amplified by the ongoing development of the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC)—a flagship component of China’s Belt and Road Initiative (BRI). CPEC includes infrastructure projects such as highways, railways, energy pipelines, and ports (e.g., Gwadar), which together offer a logistics and transit backbone that could facilitate the export of mineral resources to global markets (Iqbal, 2020).

Through CPEC, Pakistan can transform into a regional hub for mineral processing, refinement, and trade, connecting the vast mineral reserves of its own territory with those of neighboring Afghanistan and Central Asian states, many of which are rich in lithium, copper, and rare earth elements (REEs). With China’s increasing demand for strategic minerals to fuel its high-tech industries—such as renewable energy, electric vehicles, and defense technologies—Pakistan could emerge as a key supplier or transit point for raw and semi-processed mineral materials. This would not only enhance bilateral economic ties with China but also embed Pakistan into the critical minerals value chain, granting it both economic benefits and geopolitical relevance.

Moreover, rare earth elements (REEs)—which include neodymium, dysprosium, and lanthanum—are gaining prominence due to their indispensable use in modern electronics, wind turbines, missile guidance systems, and other advanced technologies. Preliminary geological surveys in northern Pakistan and Balochistan suggest the possible presence of REEs and other strategic minerals, although detailed mapping and exploration are still required to confirm and quantify their reserves (GSP, 2022). If verified and responsibly extracted, these materials could offer Pakistan long-term geopolitical leverage, enabling it to negotiate trade and strategic partnerships with global powers that are seeking to diversify their sources of critical minerals amid rising tensions between the U.S., China, and the European Union over mineral access.

Furthermore, the security of mineral supply chains is now viewed as a key element of national security for many countries. By integrating into the international value chain of strategic and critical minerals, Pakistan can enhance its strategic autonomy, diversify its trade portfolio, and reduce economic vulnerability to global commodity shocks. The state’s proactive engagement with multilateral partners—such as the U.S., Saudi Arabia, and Gulf nations, as seen in the 2025 Pakistan Minerals Investment Forum—demonstrates growing awareness of the strategic implications of mineral diplomacy.

To realize this potential, Pakistan must focus on geological surveys, regulatory transparency, environmental safeguards, and foreign investment incentives. Strengthening its mining governance and aligning with global standards (e.g., OECD Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Mineral Supply Chains) can help Pakistan integrate more effectively into secure and ethical global supply chains.

Challenges

Despite its potential, Pakistan’s mining sector faces several challenges:

• Lack of modern exploration: Most surveys date back to the 1960s and 1970s.
• Legal and regulatory hurdles: Overlapping jurisdictions between provincial and federal governments create confusion post-18th Amendment.
• Security issues: Mineral-rich areas like Balochistan are often marred by unrest.
• Environmental concerns: Lack of environmental regulations has led to unsustainable mining practices in some regions.

Recommendations

1. Modern Geological Surveys: Use remote sensing, GIS, and drilling technologies for updated mineral mapping.
2. Public-Private Partnerships: Encourage international investors while safeguarding national interests.
3. Policy Reform: Streamline mining laws, ensuring transparency, environmental safeguards, and equitable revenue-sharing.
4. Value Addition: Invest in gemstone cutting, mineral processing, and industrial-grade metallurgy.
5. Capacity Building: Train local geologists, engineers, and environmental specialists to manage mining operations sustainably.

Pakistan Minerals Investment Forum

​The Pakistan Minerals Investment Forum (PMIF), held on April 8–9, 2025, at Islamabad’s Jinnah Convention Center, marked a pivotal moment for Pakistan’s mineral sector. This two-day global event aimed to catalyze investment, drive policy action, showcase innovation, and forge powerful partnerships in the mining industry. The forum featured a Strategic Conference, bringing together Pakistan’s top policymakers, international CEOs, and institutional leaders for ministerial roundtables, policy launches, and global panels focused on mining reforms and investment frameworks.

Prime Minister Shehbaz Sharif emphasized the nation’s vast mineral wealth, asserting that foreign investment could help alleviate Pakistan’s financial challenges and reduce reliance on foreign loans. He highlighted the government’s commitment to ensuring that extracted minerals undergo local processing before export, aiming to maximize value addition within the country. ​

The forum attracted delegations from countries including the United States, Saudi Arabia, China, and the United Kingdom. Notably, U.S. companies expressed interest in investing in Pakistan’s untapped mineral sector, which boasts significant deposits of copper, gold, and lithium. This interest was underscored during discussions between U.S. State Department official Eric Meyer and Prime Minister Sharif, reflecting a mutual desire to enhance bilateral trade and investment ties. ​

A significant development announced at the forum was Barrick Gold’s pursuit of over $2 billion in international financing for the Reko Diq copper and gold project in Balochistan. This project, one of the world’s largest undeveloped copper-gold deposits, has the potential to generate substantial economic benefits for Pakistan. ​Reuters

The PMIF represents a strategic effort to address past inefficiencies in Pakistan’s mineral sector by attracting foreign direct investment and fostering long-term partnerships. By emphasizing local processing and value addition, the government aims to transform the mineral sector into a cornerstone of economic growth, job creation, and regional development, particularly in underdeveloped provinces.​The Express Tribune

Short Summary:

Conclusion

Pakistan stands at a crossroads where it can transform its mineral wealth into economic prosperity. With prudent governance, investment in infrastructure, and strategic partnerships, the country can unlock the true potential of its mineral resources. This mineral marvel, if harnessed properly, can become a linchpin of Pakistan’s development and global relevance.

References

Geological Survey of Pakistan. (2020). Annual Report 2019-2020. Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Resources.

Iqbal, A. (2020). Strategic significance of rare earth minerals in Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Geopolitical Studies, 12(2), 123–135.

Kazmi, A. H., & Jan, M. Q. (1997). Geology and Tectonics of Pakistan. Graphic Publishers.

Pakistan Bureau of Statistics. (2022). Mineral Production and Exploration Data. Government of Pakistan.

Siddique, A. (2018). The untapped gemstone potential of Northern Pakistan. Journal of Economic Development and Mineral Policy, 6(3), 89–104.

Tethyan Copper Company. (2012). Reko Diq Project Overview. [Unpublished Report].

World Bank. (2021). Pakistan Mineral Sector Review: Strategy for Sustainable Development. World Bank Publications.

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